Tribal Policy: Pulling Back from the Brink?

A considerable part of the ethnographic literature on tribes in India is preoccupied with the definition of a tribe, and the relevance of this definition to the Indian situation. Loosely, ‘a tribe is a social group the members of which live in a common territory, have a common dialect, uniform social organisation and possess cultural homogeneity, having a common ancestor, and shared systems of political organisation and religious pattern’ (Chaudhuri 1990: vi). As would be evident, this definition does not take us very far, as it could be applicable to many types of communities.² Given the wide-ranging debate in anthropological circles over the very notion of a tribe as well as the tremendous diversity across tribal communities, however, it would be sufficient for our purposes to use the self-definition adopted by the Indian Council of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples (ICITP) in a 1992 symposium: ‘peoples whose political and social organisation [is] based primarily on moral binding among kins, real and putative, who [have] a custodial attitude towards nature and [are] outside the Jati (caste) Varna system’ (Roy Burman 2000: 73). This is a characterisation that emphasises the tribal persons’ ‘extension of self not only to kins’ but also to his/her community including ‘the endowments of nature in the territories with which they have a special association through life cycle events and through activities related to the life support system’. Thus, this relationship with the human and natural environment³ is a defining feature.

As against this self-characterisation, the relevant administrative category for purposes of policy is the Scheduled Tribe. According to the definition given by Article 342 of the ‘Constitution of India, the Scheduled Tribes are the tribes or tribal communities or part of or groups within tribes and tribal communities which have been declared as such by the President by the public notification’⁴ (Government of India 1998-1999: 31).

Further, certain areas were declared as 'Scheduled' under the Fifth and Sixth Schedules of the Constitution and subjected to special administrative arrangements for the protection of tribal communities. The criteria for declaring any territory as 'Scheduled' adopted by the sub-committee of the Constituent Assembly included: (1) preponderance of tribal population; (2) the stage of advancement and degree of assimilation; and (3) to a slightly lesser extent, the susceptibility of these areas to special administrative treatment. A somewhat modified basis was, however, recommended by the Commission for Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes, 1960 (also known as the Dhebar Commission) emphasising preponderance of tribals in the population (50 per cent), compactness and reasonable size, underdeveloped nature of the area and marked disparity in economic standards of the people. However, nowhere in the Constitution have ‘tribes’ been defined and therefore the updating of lists of Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Areas has been an on-going administrative exercise since 1950.

In the Sixth Schedule, in tribal areas in the states of Assam, Meghalaya and the Mizoram, Autonomous District Councils and Regional Councils were constituted. These had powers to make laws for management of land, forest, shifting cultivation, appointment or succession of chiefs or headpersons, inheritance of property, marriage and divorce, social customs and any matter relating to village or town administration. The Fifth Schedule was initially made applicable only to the states of Madras, Bombay, West Bengal, Bihar, Central Provinces and Berar, United Provinces and Orissa.

It was in 1976 that the Fifth Schedule was extended to cover tribes living in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Himachal Pradesh (Sharma 1995). However, administrative laxity and parochial political considerations have continued to dominate, as in parts of Andhra Pradesh, and in West Bengal, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, many regions of tribal concentration are still not scheduled.

As mentioned earlier, the 1991 census enumerated the total population of the country as 846 million, out of which the population of Scheduled Tribes was 68 million, constituting 8.08 per cent of the total (Government of India 1998-1999: 31). India is by this count, home to more tribal people than any country in the world, exceeded only by the continent of Africa taken as a whole.

This is a significant number in absolute terms but certain other aspects of tribal populations in India are equally noteworthy. Tribal communities are dispersed in most parts of India, except in the states of Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, and Punjab, and the Union territories of Chandigarh, Delhi and Pondicherry. Chaudhuri (1990) identifies six major regions of tribal concentration, as follows:

1. North-eastern region: In the mountain valleys and other areas of north-eastern India, covering the States and Union Territories like Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura live tribes like the Abor, Garo, Khasi, Kuki, Mismi, Naga, etc..

2. Himalayan Region: In the sub-Himalayan regions covering parts of North-Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh live tribes like Lepcha, Rabha, etc., mostly belonging to Mongolian racial group.

3. Central India region: In the older hills and Chotanagpur Plateau, along the dividing lines between peninsular India and the Indo-Gangetic basin, live many tribal communities like the Bhumij, Gond, Ho, Oraon, Munda, Santal, etc., covering the States of Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal and mostly belonging to Proto-Australoid racial stock.

4. Western India region: Covering the States like Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli live a number of tribal communities, the most important of them being the Bhil, racially belonging to the Proto-Australoid group.

5. Southern India region: Covering the States of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in the Nilgiri Hills and converging lines of the Ghats live the Chenchu, Irula, Kadar, Kota, Kurumba, Toda, etc., having Negrito, Caucasoid, Proto-Australoid or mixed physical features.

6. Island region: Covering Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands live a number of small tribes like the Andamanese, Onge, Sentinelese, etc (Chaudhuri 1990: viii, x).

However, Shah et al (1998) underline the importance of the fact that “in most areas of tribal concentration, except the North-East, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Lakshadweep, tribals constitute a minority of the population of the region” (Shah et al 1998: 142). Further ninety-two per cent live in States/Union Territories where they form less than 25 per cent of the population (Shah et al 1998: 144).

In all ten states with the highest absolute numbers of tribal people, tribals are consistently in a minority. This has serious repercussions for their political bargaining power.

The sheer diversity of Scheduled Tribes is another barrier to their political mobilisation. According to the 1981 census, there are more than 700 tribes in India. Numerically, the three largest tribes are the Gonds, Bhils and Santals, with population ranging from 3 to 5 million each. Other large tribes are the Oraons, Meenas, Mundas, Khonds, Bodos, Kolis and Hos. At the other end of the spectrum are tribes like the Great Andamanese, which comprise less than 50 individuals.

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